Parts of northern and eastern Guinea were within the empires of Mali and Songhai, and the ruling classes among the Mandinka population were early introduced to Islam. The spread of Islam throughout Guinea was largely a result of the missionary activities of the Torobde clan of the Fulani, a pastoralist people, who established a theocratic state in highland areas of the Fouta Djallon in the early 18th century. By the mid-19th century, continual Islamic proselytizing had converted most of the population with the exception of those living in the Mossi states, who resisted and retained their animistic beliefs. In the 1880s Samory Touré, a Mandinka adventurer, used modern weapons to seize control over much of the interior.

Hunting and gathering populations occupied the area of Guinea at least 30,000 years ago, and farming has been practiced there for about 3,000 years. About 1,000 years ago Susu and Malinke (Maninka) people began to encroach on the Baga, Koniagi (Coniagui), and Nalu (Nalou) populations who had been living in the area for more than 1,000 years. The towns and villages of Upper Guinea were incorporated into the Mali empire from the mid-13th century, and by the 16th century the Fulani (Fulbe) had established domination over the Fouta Djallon. The Portuguese presence on the coast dates from the 15th century, and the slave trade continued to affect Guinea until the mid-19th century. British and French trading interests on the coast played minor roles in the historical evolution of the Guinean interior until the almamy (ruler) of Fouta Djallon placed his country under French protection in 1881. The independent Malinke state ruled by Samory Touré resisted the French military until 1898, and isolated small groups of Africans continued to resist the French until the end of World War I.

Once independent, Guinea turned to the Eastern European countries for assistance. Touré established a one-party state and imposed a strict socialist system. In 1961 Guinea joined with Ghana and Mali in the Union of African States, a loose federation that lasted only two years. After surviving several assassination attempts, Touré accused French officials of plotting his overthrow and broke off relations with France in November 1965. Guinea’s relations with Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, Senegal, and Burkina Faso continued to be stormy until 1978. Touré’s self-imposed diplomatic isolation and ill-planned economic ventures bankrupted the state and forced him to begin liberalizing the government.